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Elgar Encyclopedia of Interdisciplinarity and Transdisciplinarity
This Encyclopedia presents a comprehensive overview of the ever-evolving field of Interdisciplinarity and Transdisciplinarity across the Sciences. Authored by over 150 experts, it provides a vision of the Sciences in which scholars push boundaries and promote collaboration across diverse disciplines, scientific cultures and practices.
This title contains one or more Open Access entries.
This title contains one or more Open Access entries.
More Information
Critical Acclaim
Contributors
Contents
More Information
This Encyclopedia presents a comprehensive overview of the ever-evolving field of interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity across the Social Sciences, Natural Sciences and the Humanities. Authored by over 150 experts, it provides a vision of the Sciences in which scholars push boundaries and promote collaboration across diverse disciplines, scientific cultures and practices.
Presenting a range of interconnected ideas and cross-cultural perspectives, this Encyclopedia is a gateway resource for cross-discipline cooperation, outlining key ways in which to collaboratively analyse, comprehend and address the challenges of the 21st century. The book emphasises the importance of intellectual resilience in adapting to a changing academic landscape, encouraging readers to explore transformed science and action.
Key Features
● Over 130 entries written by expert contributors
● Aids development of an inclusive and diverse understanding of the field
● Provides an extensive exploration of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary knowledge
● Highlights the power of collective collaborative intelligence which drives interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity
● Encourages a non-linear approach, allowing readers to create and explore unique reading pathways and foster a more personal learning experience
The Elgar Encyclopedia of Interdisciplinarity and Transdisciplinarity is a captivating read for academics, researchers and students in the Social, Natural, Technical Sciences, and the Humanities. Providing practical guidance for successful interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary practice, it is also of benefit to creative professionals and societal policymakers.
Presenting a range of interconnected ideas and cross-cultural perspectives, this Encyclopedia is a gateway resource for cross-discipline cooperation, outlining key ways in which to collaboratively analyse, comprehend and address the challenges of the 21st century. The book emphasises the importance of intellectual resilience in adapting to a changing academic landscape, encouraging readers to explore transformed science and action.
Key Features
● Over 130 entries written by expert contributors
● Aids development of an inclusive and diverse understanding of the field
● Provides an extensive exploration of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary knowledge
● Highlights the power of collective collaborative intelligence which drives interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity
● Encourages a non-linear approach, allowing readers to create and explore unique reading pathways and foster a more personal learning experience
The Elgar Encyclopedia of Interdisciplinarity and Transdisciplinarity is a captivating read for academics, researchers and students in the Social, Natural, Technical Sciences, and the Humanities. Providing practical guidance for successful interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary practice, it is also of benefit to creative professionals and societal policymakers.
Critical Acclaim
‘We live in an era when diverse forms of scholarship are being undertaken all over the world, and new computational systems surprise us with their human-like competence. The numerous distinctive contributions to this book provide a timely opportunity to take stock on where scholarship is today and how it may evolve in the period ahead.’
– Howard Gardner, Harvard University, US, author of A Synthesizing Mind (MIT Press)
– Howard Gardner, Harvard University, US, author of A Synthesizing Mind (MIT Press)
Contributors
Contributors include: Ahmed M. Abdulla, Maik Arnold, Craig A. Ashhurst, Tanya Augsburg, Jörg Balsiger, Gabriele Bammer, Lia Pinheiro Barbosa, Reinette (Oonsie)Biggs, Annette Boaz, Nathalie Bonnardel, Marion Botella, Samira Bourgeois-Bougrine, Hilary Bradbury, Evelyn Brister, Valerie A. Brown, Marcel Bursztyn, Steven H. Cady, Guido Caniglia, Edgar Cardenas, Sarah A. Caroleo, Sumita Chatterjee, Heléne Clark, Samantha Copeland, Nigel Cross, Rhonda D. Davis, Rico Defila, Lisa Deutsch, Antonietta Di Giulio, Tessa Diphoorn, Hester du Plessis, Ciarán Dunne, Nathalie Dupin, Dena Fam, Lukas P. Fesenfeld, Stephen M. Fiore, Isabel Fletcher, Livia Fritz, Robert Frodeman, Silvio Funtowicz, Jennifer M. Gidley, Vlad Glaveanu, Peter Goodyear, Heide Hackmann, Muki Haklay, Kara L. Hall, Björn Hammarfelt, Sven Ove Hansson, Susanne Hecker, Kerstin Hemström, Janet G. Hering, Jeremy M. Hills, Sabine Hoffmann, Karri A. Holley, Karin Ingold, ITD Alliance, Navya Miriam Itty, Johanna Jacobi, Raphaël Julliard, Machiel Keestra, Gloria Kirwan, Renate G. Klaassen, Colleen Teresa Knechtel, Susanne Knittel, Zora Kovacic, Michael Kreß-Ludwig, Christian A. Kull, David Laille, Roderick J. Lawrence, Lindsay Ellis Lee, Liudvika Leišytė, Ellen D. Lewis, Gabriela Litre, Gaetano Romano Lotrecchiano, Todd Lubart, Kristine Lund, Alexandra Lux, Catherine Lyall, Payal N. Maharaj, Willem Malherbe, Oska Marg, Lina Markauskaite, Judy Matthews, Keith McCandless, Brianne McGonigle Leyh, Sue L.T. McGregor, Chet McLeskey, Vikas Mehta, Julie Mennes, Juliana Merçon, Faye Q. Miller, Samantha Monaghan, Zoe Moody, Genevieve Mosely, Nicola Mößner, Gjoko Muratovski, Nancy J. Nersessian, Yair Neuman, Graeme Nicholas, Helga Nowotny, Lisa M. Osbeck, Michael O’Rourke, Oliver Parodi, Oliver Clifford Pedersen, Mary Pei, Laura Pereira, Tomas Pernecky, Valerie V. Peterson, Michelle Phillips Buchberger, Jonathan A. Plucker, Christian Pohl, Merritt Polk, Katrin Prager, Rika Preiser, Gerard Puccio, Rafi Rashid, Jacob Lee Ravnborg, Ortwin Renn, Marisa A. Rinkus, John Robinson, Mihail C. Roco, Anna-Lena Rose, Katie Ross, Wendy Ross, Mark A. Runco, Romain Sauzet, Carolina Schenatto da Rosa, Flurina Schneider, Christian D. Schunn, Andreas Seebacher, Ross T. Shackleton, Arvind Singhal, Peter Scott, Warren Smit, Oscar Soto, Natalie Spence, Michael Stauffacher, Paul Stenner, Anne Stephens, Robert J. Sternberg, Daniel Stokols, Danilo R. Streck, Johannes Strikwerda, Rick Szostak, Anna Taylor, Jessica L. Thompson, Valentín Val, Lisa M. Vaughn, Bianca Vienni-Baptista, Hava E.Vidergor, Ulli Vilsmaier, Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin, Silke Voigt-Heucke, Dietmar Wechsler, Cara Wrigley, Jakob Zinsstag, Tania Zittoun
Contents
Contents
List of contributors x
Preface xiv
1 Academic identities 1
Liudvika Leišytė and Anna-Lena Rose
2 Action research 5
Hilary Bradbury
3 Administration 9
Rick Szostak
4 Against interdisciplinarity 13
Valerie V. Peterson
5 Agroecological transitions 18
Johanna Jacobi and Navya
Miriam Itty
6 Analogy 24
Christian D. Schunn
7 Brainstorming 28
Gerard Puccio, Jacob Lee
Ravnborg and Samantha Monaghan
8 Career 32
Nathalie Dupin and Catherine Lyall
9 Change 36
Gabriele Bammer
10 Children as co-researchers 41
Zoe Moody
11 Citizen science 46
Silke Voigt-Heucke, Muki
Haklay and Susanne Hecker
12 Co-creation 50
Katrin Prager and Graeme Nicholas
13 Co-designing for
interdisciplinarity 54
Lina Markauskaite, Cara
Wrigley and Genevieve Mosely
14 Co-production:
a functional-dynamic approach 60
Michael Stauffacher
15 Collaboration readiness 65
Gaetano Romano Lotrecchiano
16 Collaborative problem solving 70
Stephen M. Fiore and Kara L. Hall
17 Communication 75
Jessica L. Thompson
18 Competence 80
Colleen Teresa Knechtel
19 Complex adaptive systems 86
Rika Preiser
20 Complexity 91
Johannes Strikwerda
21 Convergence research 97
Mihail C. Roco
22 Convergent thinking 104
Mark A. Runco
23 Creative problem solving 108
Samira Bourgeois-Bougrine
24 Creative process 112
David Laille, Raphaël Julliard
and Marion Botella
25 Creativity 116
Todd Lubart
26 Critical interdisciplinarity 120
Michelle Phillips Buchberger
27 Critical thinking 124
Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin
28 Crossdisciplinarity 129
Michael O’Rourke, Julie
Mennes and Marisa A. Rinkus
29 Crowdsourcing research 135
Dietmar Wechsler
30 Cultural studies of
collaborative science and
technology 139
Bianca Vienni-Baptista
31 Curiosity-driven research 144
Ortwin Renn
32 Decolonizing transdisciplinarity 148
Danilo R. Streck and Carolina
Schenatto da Rosa
33 Deep interdisciplinarity
and transdisciplinary
knowledge co-production 152
John Robinson
34 Democratic backsliding 157
Rick Szostak
35 Design activities 160
Nathalie Bonnardel
36 Design innovation 165
Cara Wrigley and Judy Matthews
37 Design thinking 170
Nigel Cross
38 Dialogue of knowledge 174
Valentín Val, Lia Pinheiro
Barbosa and Oscar Soto
39 Dialogue 178
Michael O’Rourke and Chet
McLeskey
40 Discipline 182
Björn Hammarfelt
41 Divergent thinking 186
Mark A. Runco
42 Diversity 190
Machiel Keestra
43 Ecological consciousness 196
Rhonda D. Davis
44 Embedded researchers 201
Anna Taylor
45 Epistemic fluency 205
Lina Markauskaite, Peter
Goodyear and Natalie Spence
46 Epistemic identity 210
Lisa M. Osbeck and Nancy J.
Nersessian
47 Failure 214
Michael O’Rourke, Dena Fam
and Edgar Cardenas
48 Field philosophy 218
Evelyn Brister
49 Future of design 222
Gjoko Muratovski
50 Futures thinking literacy 226
Hava E. Vidergor
51 Gender and
interdisciplinary research 231
Isabel Fletcher and Catherine Lyall
52 Giftedness 235
Sarah A. Caroleo and Jonathan
A. Plucker
53 Global environmental change 240
Gabriela Litre and Marcel Bursztyn
54 Human ecology 245
Roderick J. Lawrence
55 Imagination 250
Tania Zittoun and Oliver
Clifford Pedersen
56 Inclusive systemic thinking 254
Ellen D. Lewis, Anne Stephens
and Sumita Chatterjee
57 Information 259
Johannes Strikwerda
58 Innovation 264
Mary Pei and Jonathan A. Plucker
59 Institutionalising 268
Bianca Vienni-Baptista
60 Integration experts and expertise 273
Sabine Hoffmann, Lisa Deutsch
and Michael O’Rourke
61 Integration 277
Alexandra Lux, Oskar Marg
and Flurina Schneider
62 Intelligence 281
Robert J. Sternberg
63 Inter- and transdisciplinary
learning 284
Renate G. Klaassen
64 Interdisciplinarians 290
Tanya Augsburg
65 Interdisciplinary doctoral
education 296
Rafi Rashid
66 Interdisciplinarity 301
Rick Szostak
67 Interdisciplinary curricula 305
Karri A. Holley
68 Interdisciplinary studies 309
Michelle Phillips Buchberger
69 Knowledge organization 314
Rick Szostak
70 Liberating structures 318
Keith McCandless, Arvind
Singhal and Steven H. Cady
71 Liminality 323
Paul Stenner
72 Marginality 328
Mark A. Runco
73 Metacognition 332
Machiel Keestra
74 Mode of knowledge production 338
Helga Nowotny and Peter Scott
75 Multidisciplinarity 343
Rick Szostak
76 Multivocality 346
Kristine Lund
77 Nicolescuian approach to
transdisciplinarity 352
Sue L. T. McGregor
78 One health 357
Jakob Zinsstag
79 Open science
developments in Africa 362
Heide Hackmann and Hester du
Plessis
80 Participatory Action
Research (Latin American
tradition) 366
Juliana Merçon
81 Participatory research methods 370
Lisa M. Vaughn
82 Pluralism 374
Romain Sauzet
83 Polymathy 378
Mark A. Runco and Ahmed M.
Abdulla
84 Possible 381
Vlad Glaveanu
85 Post-normal science 385
Zora Kovacic and Silvio Funtowicz
86 Postdisciplinarity 390
Tomas Pernecky
87 Power 394
Ross T. Shackleton, Livia Fritz
and Christian A. Kull
88 Practical wisdom
for transdisciplinary
sustainability science 399
Guido Caniglia
89 Precautionary principle 404
Sven Ove Hansson
90 Problem finding 408
Mark A. Runco and Lindsay Ellis Lee
91 Process design 412
Rico Defila and Antonietta Di Giulio
92 Public space 417
Vikas Mehta
93 Real-world labs and living labs 421
Oliver Parodi and Andreas Seebacher
94 Relative entropy 426
Yair Neuman
95 Research use 430
Annette Boaz
96 Resilience 433
Ross T. Shackleton, Willem
Malherbe and Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs
97 Responsivity 438
Ulli Vilsmaier
98 Risk 442
Sven Ove Hansson
99 Scaffolding 446
Roderick J. Lawrence
100 Scenario 450
Michael Stauffacher
101 Science of team science (SciTS) 455
Kara L. Hall and Stephen M. Fiore
102 Science-policy interface 461
Lukas P. Fesenfeld, Janet G.
Hering and Karin Ingold
103 Serendipity 467
Samantha Copeland and Wendy Ross
104 Shared understanding 471
Faye Q. Miller
105 Social ecology 477
Daniel Stokols
106 Social-ecological systems (SES) 483
Ross T. Shackleton
107 Stakeholder engagement 487
Gabriele Bammer
108 Sustainability 492
Antonietta Di Giulio
109 Sustainable cities 497
Kerstin Hemström, Merritt Polk
and Warren Smit
110 Sustainable knowledge 501
Robert Frodeman
111 Synthesizing 505
Sabine Hoffmann
112 Theory of Change 509
Heléne Clark
113 Theory-practice transfer model 514
Maik Arnold
114 Third place 520
Vikas Mehta
115 Thought styles 524
Nicola Mößner
116 Threshold concepts 529
Gloria Kirwan
117 Toolkits 533
ITD Alliance Working Group on
Toolkits and Methods
118 Training the next generation 538
Nathalie Dupin
119 Transdisciplinarians 542
Tanya Augsburg
120 Transdisciplinarity 548
Roderick J. Lawrence
121 Transdisciplinary research process 553
Alexandra Lux, Michael
Kreß-Ludwig and Flurina Schneider
122 Transformation 558
Ulli Vilsmaier and Katie Ross
123 Transformative change 563
Karri A. Holley
124 Transformative ocean governance 567
Jeremy M. Hills and Payal N.
Maharaj
125 Transformative spaces 571
Laura Pereira
126 Transformative learning 576
Jörg Balsiger
127 Transformative research 580
Antonietta Di Giulio and Rico Defila
128 Transhumanism 585
Jennifer M. Gidley
129 Transversal skills 590
Ciarán Dunne
130 Transversity 594
Sue L. T. McGregor
131 Travelling concepts 599
Tessa Diphoorn, Susanne Knittel
and Brianne McGonigle Leyh
132 Types of knowledge 603
Christian Pohl
133 Unknowns 607
Gabriele Bammer
134 Wicked problems 612
Craig A. Ashhurst and Valerie
A. Brown
135 World history 617
Rick Szostak
List of contributors x
Preface xiv
1 Academic identities 1
Liudvika Leišytė and Anna-Lena Rose
2 Action research 5
Hilary Bradbury
3 Administration 9
Rick Szostak
4 Against interdisciplinarity 13
Valerie V. Peterson
5 Agroecological transitions 18
Johanna Jacobi and Navya
Miriam Itty
6 Analogy 24
Christian D. Schunn
7 Brainstorming 28
Gerard Puccio, Jacob Lee
Ravnborg and Samantha Monaghan
8 Career 32
Nathalie Dupin and Catherine Lyall
9 Change 36
Gabriele Bammer
10 Children as co-researchers 41
Zoe Moody
11 Citizen science 46
Silke Voigt-Heucke, Muki
Haklay and Susanne Hecker
12 Co-creation 50
Katrin Prager and Graeme Nicholas
13 Co-designing for
interdisciplinarity 54
Lina Markauskaite, Cara
Wrigley and Genevieve Mosely
14 Co-production:
a functional-dynamic approach 60
Michael Stauffacher
15 Collaboration readiness 65
Gaetano Romano Lotrecchiano
16 Collaborative problem solving 70
Stephen M. Fiore and Kara L. Hall
17 Communication 75
Jessica L. Thompson
18 Competence 80
Colleen Teresa Knechtel
19 Complex adaptive systems 86
Rika Preiser
20 Complexity 91
Johannes Strikwerda
21 Convergence research 97
Mihail C. Roco
22 Convergent thinking 104
Mark A. Runco
23 Creative problem solving 108
Samira Bourgeois-Bougrine
24 Creative process 112
David Laille, Raphaël Julliard
and Marion Botella
25 Creativity 116
Todd Lubart
26 Critical interdisciplinarity 120
Michelle Phillips Buchberger
27 Critical thinking 124
Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin
28 Crossdisciplinarity 129
Michael O’Rourke, Julie
Mennes and Marisa A. Rinkus
29 Crowdsourcing research 135
Dietmar Wechsler
30 Cultural studies of
collaborative science and
technology 139
Bianca Vienni-Baptista
31 Curiosity-driven research 144
Ortwin Renn
32 Decolonizing transdisciplinarity 148
Danilo R. Streck and Carolina
Schenatto da Rosa
33 Deep interdisciplinarity
and transdisciplinary
knowledge co-production 152
John Robinson
34 Democratic backsliding 157
Rick Szostak
35 Design activities 160
Nathalie Bonnardel
36 Design innovation 165
Cara Wrigley and Judy Matthews
37 Design thinking 170
Nigel Cross
38 Dialogue of knowledge 174
Valentín Val, Lia Pinheiro
Barbosa and Oscar Soto
39 Dialogue 178
Michael O’Rourke and Chet
McLeskey
40 Discipline 182
Björn Hammarfelt
41 Divergent thinking 186
Mark A. Runco
42 Diversity 190
Machiel Keestra
43 Ecological consciousness 196
Rhonda D. Davis
44 Embedded researchers 201
Anna Taylor
45 Epistemic fluency 205
Lina Markauskaite, Peter
Goodyear and Natalie Spence
46 Epistemic identity 210
Lisa M. Osbeck and Nancy J.
Nersessian
47 Failure 214
Michael O’Rourke, Dena Fam
and Edgar Cardenas
48 Field philosophy 218
Evelyn Brister
49 Future of design 222
Gjoko Muratovski
50 Futures thinking literacy 226
Hava E. Vidergor
51 Gender and
interdisciplinary research 231
Isabel Fletcher and Catherine Lyall
52 Giftedness 235
Sarah A. Caroleo and Jonathan
A. Plucker
53 Global environmental change 240
Gabriela Litre and Marcel Bursztyn
54 Human ecology 245
Roderick J. Lawrence
55 Imagination 250
Tania Zittoun and Oliver
Clifford Pedersen
56 Inclusive systemic thinking 254
Ellen D. Lewis, Anne Stephens
and Sumita Chatterjee
57 Information 259
Johannes Strikwerda
58 Innovation 264
Mary Pei and Jonathan A. Plucker
59 Institutionalising 268
Bianca Vienni-Baptista
60 Integration experts and expertise 273
Sabine Hoffmann, Lisa Deutsch
and Michael O’Rourke
61 Integration 277
Alexandra Lux, Oskar Marg
and Flurina Schneider
62 Intelligence 281
Robert J. Sternberg
63 Inter- and transdisciplinary
learning 284
Renate G. Klaassen
64 Interdisciplinarians 290
Tanya Augsburg
65 Interdisciplinary doctoral
education 296
Rafi Rashid
66 Interdisciplinarity 301
Rick Szostak
67 Interdisciplinary curricula 305
Karri A. Holley
68 Interdisciplinary studies 309
Michelle Phillips Buchberger
69 Knowledge organization 314
Rick Szostak
70 Liberating structures 318
Keith McCandless, Arvind
Singhal and Steven H. Cady
71 Liminality 323
Paul Stenner
72 Marginality 328
Mark A. Runco
73 Metacognition 332
Machiel Keestra
74 Mode of knowledge production 338
Helga Nowotny and Peter Scott
75 Multidisciplinarity 343
Rick Szostak
76 Multivocality 346
Kristine Lund
77 Nicolescuian approach to
transdisciplinarity 352
Sue L. T. McGregor
78 One health 357
Jakob Zinsstag
79 Open science
developments in Africa 362
Heide Hackmann and Hester du
Plessis
80 Participatory Action
Research (Latin American
tradition) 366
Juliana Merçon
81 Participatory research methods 370
Lisa M. Vaughn
82 Pluralism 374
Romain Sauzet
83 Polymathy 378
Mark A. Runco and Ahmed M.
Abdulla
84 Possible 381
Vlad Glaveanu
85 Post-normal science 385
Zora Kovacic and Silvio Funtowicz
86 Postdisciplinarity 390
Tomas Pernecky
87 Power 394
Ross T. Shackleton, Livia Fritz
and Christian A. Kull
88 Practical wisdom
for transdisciplinary
sustainability science 399
Guido Caniglia
89 Precautionary principle 404
Sven Ove Hansson
90 Problem finding 408
Mark A. Runco and Lindsay Ellis Lee
91 Process design 412
Rico Defila and Antonietta Di Giulio
92 Public space 417
Vikas Mehta
93 Real-world labs and living labs 421
Oliver Parodi and Andreas Seebacher
94 Relative entropy 426
Yair Neuman
95 Research use 430
Annette Boaz
96 Resilience 433
Ross T. Shackleton, Willem
Malherbe and Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs
97 Responsivity 438
Ulli Vilsmaier
98 Risk 442
Sven Ove Hansson
99 Scaffolding 446
Roderick J. Lawrence
100 Scenario 450
Michael Stauffacher
101 Science of team science (SciTS) 455
Kara L. Hall and Stephen M. Fiore
102 Science-policy interface 461
Lukas P. Fesenfeld, Janet G.
Hering and Karin Ingold
103 Serendipity 467
Samantha Copeland and Wendy Ross
104 Shared understanding 471
Faye Q. Miller
105 Social ecology 477
Daniel Stokols
106 Social-ecological systems (SES) 483
Ross T. Shackleton
107 Stakeholder engagement 487
Gabriele Bammer
108 Sustainability 492
Antonietta Di Giulio
109 Sustainable cities 497
Kerstin Hemström, Merritt Polk
and Warren Smit
110 Sustainable knowledge 501
Robert Frodeman
111 Synthesizing 505
Sabine Hoffmann
112 Theory of Change 509
Heléne Clark
113 Theory-practice transfer model 514
Maik Arnold
114 Third place 520
Vikas Mehta
115 Thought styles 524
Nicola Mößner
116 Threshold concepts 529
Gloria Kirwan
117 Toolkits 533
ITD Alliance Working Group on
Toolkits and Methods
118 Training the next generation 538
Nathalie Dupin
119 Transdisciplinarians 542
Tanya Augsburg
120 Transdisciplinarity 548
Roderick J. Lawrence
121 Transdisciplinary research process 553
Alexandra Lux, Michael
Kreß-Ludwig and Flurina Schneider
122 Transformation 558
Ulli Vilsmaier and Katie Ross
123 Transformative change 563
Karri A. Holley
124 Transformative ocean governance 567
Jeremy M. Hills and Payal N.
Maharaj
125 Transformative spaces 571
Laura Pereira
126 Transformative learning 576
Jörg Balsiger
127 Transformative research 580
Antonietta Di Giulio and Rico Defila
128 Transhumanism 585
Jennifer M. Gidley
129 Transversal skills 590
Ciarán Dunne
130 Transversity 594
Sue L. T. McGregor
131 Travelling concepts 599
Tessa Diphoorn, Susanne Knittel
and Brianne McGonigle Leyh
132 Types of knowledge 603
Christian Pohl
133 Unknowns 607
Gabriele Bammer
134 Wicked problems 612
Craig A. Ashhurst and Valerie
A. Brown
135 World history 617
Rick Szostak
